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Consequently, we confirm the autapomorphic status of the Neandertal suprainiac fossa. Am J Phys Anthropol 151:38�C48, 2013. ? 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. ""All primates regularly move within three-dimensional arboreal environments and must often climb, but little is known about the energetic costs of this critical activity. Limited previous work on the energetics of incline locomotion suggests that there may be differential selective pressures for large compared to small primates in choosing to exploit a complex arboreal environment. Necessary metabolic and gait data have never been collected to examine this possibility and biomechanical mechanisms that might explain size-based differences in the cost of arboreal movement. Energetics and kinematics were collected for five species of primate during climbing and horizontal locomotion. Subjects moved on a treadmill with a narrow vertical substrate and one with a narrow horizontal substrate at their maximum [http://www.selleckchem.com/products/ch5424802.html Alectinib] sustainable speed for 10�C20 min while oxygen consumption was monitored. Data during climbing were compared to those during horizontal locomotion and across size. Results show that climbing energetic costs [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPX4 GPX4] were similar to horizontal costs for small primates ([http://www.selleckchem.com/products/azd9291.html Selleck Osimertinib] in increased levels of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and phenotypic variance among individuals. However, the literature is contradictory in this regard. This study assesses the effect of prenatal nutritional stress on FA and among-individual variance in cranial shape and size using a mouse model of maternal protein restriction. Two sets of landmark coordinates were digitized in three dimensions from skulls of control and protein restricted specimens at E17.5 and E18.5. We found that, by the end of gestation, maternal protein restriction resulted in a significant reduction of skull size. Fluctuating asymmetry in size and shape exceeded the amount of measurement error in all groups, but no significant differences in the magnitude of FA were found between treatments.