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All pair-wise comparisons between individual exposure categories were significant at P?Selleck MG-132 exposed groups for HNC (P?=?0��076). Analysis of the owner questionnaires collected at the time of hair sampling, (Table?1) revealed that 87% of dogs were reportedly exposed to ETS in their own homes and 74% of dogs were reportedly exposed during close contact with a smoker. In -addition, 74% of owners reported that their dogs were reportedly exposed to ETS outdoors. This study shows that dog HNC appears to be closely associated with reported exposure to ETS. Both the HNC and the surface (wash) nicotine were significantly different between all groups, except the unexposed and occasionally exposed dogs when assessed by pair-wise comparisons. Occasional ETS exposure was associated with reduced median nicotine concentrations in both hair and wash compared to dogs with reported regular ETS exposure. This suggests that reducing exposure by smoking outdoors or by reducing the amount of direct contact with ETS can significantly reduce the amount of HNC in dogs. However, the HNC of dogs exposed occasionally to ETS remains greater than that of dogs that are never exposed. Hair nicotine was found in 11 of 15 dogs reportedly not exposed to ETS, which is similar to the studies reported in humans (Pichini and others 1997, Al-Delaimy and others 2002). It is possible that exposure is taking place through alternative routes not recognised by the owners, such as environmental pollution. Mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease One dog with no reported ETS exposure had high HNC (3��0834?ng/mg) which would be more consistent with regular exposure. This dog was only 16?weeks old at the time of sampling and was a standard poodle. Given the age of the puppy it may have had exposure to ETS in its neonatal environment, as puppies are usually re-homed at 8 to 12?weeks of age and the HNC could therefore reflect nicotine exposure in the first half of the puppy's life. Unfortunately, although the selleck compound questionnaire asked owners to record exposure over the previous 3?months, it did not specifically request information on the ownership of the dog over that timeframe. Another potential explanation for the result is in the dog's hair type. Poodles are known for their non-shedding hair coat which might increase long-term nicotine build-up in older poodles. However, the age of this dog meant that unless nicotine build-up started during gestation the timeframe for potential exposure is limited by its age. The two other dogs that were poodle crossbreds (jackadoodle and labradoodle) were both also in group 0 but had low HNC (0��0225?ng/mg and 0��0049?ng/mg, respectively), suggesting that non-shedding hair type alone is unlikely to be responsible.