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2002; Berthold et al. 2008; Tsunoda & Hegemann, 2009). The low conductance of ChR1 at pH 7 limits its use as a scientific tool. Volvox carteri VChR2 (Ernst et al. 2008) has similar properties to ChR2 but has slower kinetics (Lin et al. 2009b). Volvox carteri VChR2 has no obvious advantages over other ChRs. The ChD variant was generated by the chimeragenesis of ChR1 and ChR2 (Wang et al. 2009; Lin et al. 2009a). ChD is comparable to ChETA in kinetics, but has better membrane trafficking/expression (Wang et al. 2009; Lin et al. 2009a). ChD may be used in a similar manner to ChETA (Fig. 2) but does not require the H134R mutation to increase the photocurrent. The properties of the ChR variants are summarized in Table 1. The following improvements should enhance the utility of the ChR technology. 1 Higher conductance. An increased Vismodegib in vivo conductance would enhance efficiency and reduce the need for overexpression. The use of ChRs allows for the manipulation Temozolomide of membrane potential in genetically defined cells with light. Channelrhodopsins can be invaluable research tools of the future, as indicated by the increase in literature based on use of this technology. While many ChR variants have been developed, many characteristics still need to be optimized to generate better ChRs. Care should be taken to characterize new variants and compare them with known variants to ensure adequate information for the users of these tools. J. Y. Lin received funding from the Foundation of Research, Science and Technology of New Zealand. Research is supported by grants to Roger Y. Tsien from NIH (NS027177) and Howard Hughes Medical Institute. I thank Drs S. B. Sann and E. A. Rodriguez for editorial assistance. The ChD, ChEF and ChIEF constructs can be requested from http://www.tsienlab.ucsd.edu or requested from John Y. Lin (j8lin@ucsd.edu). Fig. S1. The theoretical changes of the membrane potential induced by ChRs of different properties with continuous light stimulation on a passive membrane model. As a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting information supplied by the authors. Such materials are peer-reviewed and may be re-organized for online delivery, but are not copy-edited or typeset. Technical support issues arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should Moroxydine be addressed to the authors. ""Brain angiotensin (Ang) II and vasopressin play important roles in the neurogenic regulation of the circulatory system, such as in cardiovascular responses to stress. Recently, it has become evident that the positive effects of statins are not limited to their lipid-lowering actions; for example, it has been found that statins interact with angiotensin peptides. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that simvastatin affects haemodynamic responses to air-jet stress and intracerebroventricular infusions of vasopressin and AngII.