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4. Neither LVP nor calcium fluorescence was altered during vagus nerve stimulation at any frequency studied whilst heart rate was controlled with right ventricular pacing (data not shown). During these protocols, atrial electrograms were simultaneously measured to monitor the presence of VS. Retrograde conduction through the atrio-ventricular node was delayed during VS, confirming that the vagus nerves were activated during these tests. Additionally, the effect of VS on ventriculo-atrial conduction was significantly greater during stimulation of the left than the right vagus nerve (Table 3). Sympathetic nerve stimulation in diglyceride the absence and presence of VS The effect of sympathetic nerve stimulation on LVP and epicardial fluorescence in the absence and presence IOX1 of bilateral VS is shown in Fig. 5. Accompanying the positive inotropic effect of SS there was a small increase in the systolic level of the calcium transient without any significant change in the diastolic level or duration of the calcium transient (except calcium transient duration at 25% decay during medium- and high-frequency SS; Fig. 5B). All changes observed during SS were decreased in the presence of bilateral vagus nerve stimulation. The ventricular contractile data are shown in Table 4, demonstrating a significant (P Selleck I-BET-762 1.3%). At 25% decay of the transient, calcium transient duration was shortened during medium- and high-frequency stimulation, and this effect was lost in the presence of bilateral VS. Results presented herewith are the first to report changes in the calcium transient recorded from left ventricle of the beating heart during direct autonomic nerve stimulation in any species. The overwhelming advantage of using the calcium fluorescence technique in combination with the novel isolated innervated heart preparation is that a more physiologically appropriate stimulation of sympathetic and vagus nerves is used, as opposed to the use of pharmacological agents.