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12.1 2010-12-16] The R Foundation for Statistical Computing; http://www.r-project.org). Dose effects were modeled as continuous; comparison between drugs (including drug/dose comparisons) were modeled as factors with a level for either each drug or each drug/dose Verteporfin combination. As we used repeated-measures (five trials/session, multiple sessions across experiment), session was always included as a continuous independent variable with an error term of mouse/session for repeated-measures, for example, statistics=aov(latency?drug?session+Error(mouse/session)).statistics=aov(latency?drug?session+Error(mouse/session)). All data are reported as mean �� SEM and expressed as the normalized value of the baseline (5?min) before drug application. For analysis of drug effects on EPSC amplitude we used a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA, followed by a Tukey post hoc Tubulin test on the EPSC amplitudes collected 5?min before drug exposure and 15�C20?min after that time. Statistical significance was determined by p?NLG919 molecular weight in reinforcement learning and decision making (Frank, 2006). Emergent uses point neurons with excitatory, inhibitory, and leak conductances contributing to an integrated membrane potential, which is then thresholded and transformed to produce a rate code output communicated to other units. In the BG model, there is no supervised learning signal; reinforcement learning in the model relies on modification of corticostriatal synaptic strengths. Dopamine in the BG modifies activity in Go and NoGo units in the striatum, where this modulation of activity affects both the propensity for overall gating (Go relative to NoGo activity) and activity-dependent plasticity that occurs during reward prediction errors (Frank, 2005; Wiecki et?al., 2009). Both of these functions are detailed below. The below equations are written in general form; parameters vary according to physiological properties of different BG nuclei. For example, GPi/GPe units are tonically active in the absence of synaptic input, whereas striatal units fire only with convergent excitatory synaptic input from sensory input and preSMA. The below model neuron parameters are adjusted to capture these properties as described in Frank (2006).