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38 Although the beneficial influence of these economic activities seems to encourage open economic policies and increased economic involvement by foreign countries, researchers have warned that in low-income countries, the effectiveness of international trade investment depends on the political capacity of the national government, including its bargaining power and negotiation skills in its Oxygenase dealings with high-income countries.39 Therefore, government capacity plays a major role in determining whether these economic activities can be transformed into long-term economic and structural development, which can benefit the well-being of citizens. Although we did not determine whether the ecological footprints and per capita CO2 emissions were the mediators between economic characteristics, and IMRs and U5MRs, we discovered that export intensity increases the level of CO2 emissions, but decreases the ecological footprints in sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, the theoretical explanation that the unequal trade relationship results in environmental pollution and decreased material consumption in developing countries seems to be applicable to sub-Saharan Africa. By contrast, export intensity increases the ecological footprints and the per capita CO2 emissions in other countries in Asia, the Middle East and Northern Africa. Although CO2 emissions increase in these countries because of the effects of exports, these countries are capable of using their resources to increase economic growth and improve the living standard of the population. In addition, our results suggest that in other regions, an increased percentage of exports to high-income countries can reduce the ecological footprints in these countries. This finding suggests that the export of natural resources, goods and services from low-income countries could greatly influence the environmental and structural contexts, and further decrease the living standards of low-income countries. Similar results have been reported in a previous study.5 The findings of this study have several limitations. First, the choice of indicators, which were strongly influenced by the available data, may have resulted in the exclusion of relevant variables. Missing data in the available data sets may also have been a problem. Difficulties in collecting data from low-income countries have been documented in relevant studies.19 Second, although the ecological footprint is a powerful communication tool, and has been widely used to measure material consumption, this indicator was criticised for neglecting numerous ecological demands.40 Third, this is a repeated cross-sectional study; therefore, the causal relationship between the economic variables and outcomes should be interpreted cautiously.