The Research Powering Rucaparib

, 2013). Therefore, methane emission from the biosphere into the atmosphere is mainly determined by methanogenic and methanotrophic activities, and numerous prior studies have focused on methanogens and methanotrophs to gain a better click here understanding of methane metabolism in the biospheric carbon cycles (Semrau et al., 2010; Bridgham et al., 2013; Costa and Leigh, 2014). Among methanogenic groups, members of the orders Methanomicrobiales, Methanobacteriales, Methanococcales, Methanosarcinales, and Methanocellales have been identified from rice paddies (Sakai et al., 2009; Ma et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015). Although anaerobic methanotrophs such as the anaerobic methanotrophic archaea (ANME), ��Candidatus Methylomirabilis oxyfera,�� and ��Candidatus Methanoperedens nitroreducens�� have recently been reported as putatively important players in methane oxidation (Ettwig et al., 2010; Biddle et al., 2012; Haroon et al., 2013; Shen et al., 2014), it has been suggested that methane is metabolized mainly by aerobic methanotrophs in rice paddies (Groot et al., 2003; Ma et al., 2010, 2013; Lee et al., 2014). Based on their physiological characteristics and phylogeny, the aerobic methanotrophs are generally divided into two groups, types I and II, corresponding to the family Methylococcaceae (Gammaproteobacteria) and the families Methylocystaceae and Beijerinckiaceae (Alphaproteobacteria), respectively (Semrau et al., 2010; L��ke and Frenzel, 2011). In addition, atypical methanotrophs belonging to the family Methylacidiphilaceae of the phylum Verrucomicrobia were reported to be aerobic (Op den Camp et al., 2009). Rice, one of the most important crop plants worldwide with a total cultivation area of 155 million hectares, is traditionally grown under flooded or wet conditions during most of the cultivation period (Ma et al., 2010). Because the waterlogged soil of rice paddies provides ideal conditions for methanogenesis, rice field is considered an important anthropogenic methane source accounting for 5�C19% of the global methane emission to the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007; Ma et al., 2010). Methane emission from rice paddies is the result of complicated processes, including hydrolysis and fermentation of organic matter, methanogenesis, and methane transport and oxidation, which involve complex consortia of hydrolytic, fermenting, methanogenic, and methanotrophic microorganisms (Liesack et al., 2000; Conrad, 2002, 2007). Previous studies have shown that different methanotrophic and methanogenic taxa display varying sensitivities and responses to oxygen concentrations (Gilbert and Frenzel, 1998; Yuan et al., 2009, 2011; Krause et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2012; Reim et al., 2012).