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During (feedback-free) baseline recordings, participants were asked to relax with their eyes open and gaze at a blank wall. SHAM group participants did not receive veridical feedback from their EEG activity, but were re-played EEG signal from a previously recorded session of a NFB-successful participant (their whole-scalp EEG activity was nevertheless recorded). For the purpose of online NFB training, the EEG signal was IIR (infinite impulse response) band-pass filtered to extract alpha (8�C12?Hz) amplitude with an epoch size of 0.5?s. The protocol was set-up so that participants were rewarded upon suppression of their absolute alpha amplitude. For both NFB and SHAM participants, the amplitude threshold for reward was initially set so that their alpha amplitude would temporally occur circa 60% of the time below the initial 3-min baseline average (i.e. they received negative-feedback 40% of the time). In cases where the participant achieved disproportionately Bleomycin supplier larger (>?80%) or lower (Rigosertib supplier were ��in-the-zone�� of their target brain activity (i.e. alpha lower than threshold), increasing their points in the game, and which fell back to stationary when they were ��out-of-the-zone�� (i.e. alpha higher than threshold). The aim of the training was to use the feedback they received during the game to learn to keep the spaceship traveling through space. Participants of both groups (NFB, SHAM) were not given any explicit instructions or mental strategies by the experimenter on how to achieve control over their spaceship, but were told to be guided by the visual feedback process. Moreover, they were not informed on the type of EEG parameter or frequency that was being rewarded. S1PR1 The 30-min session was divided into 10 three-minute periods. Each participant had a small break (of 10?s) between each 3-min period, during which their score for the preceding periods was displayed. After completing the feedback training session, NFB and SHAM participants were asked to note down what strategy, if any, in their experience was most successful for gaining points during the game. Scalp voltages were recorded using a 19 Ag/AgCl electrode cap according to the 10-20 international system: Fp1, Fp2, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, T3, C3, Cz, C4, T4, T5, P3, Pz, P4, T6, O1, O2 (Electro-cap International, Inc. www.electro-cap.com).