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In this way, musical structure is somehow meaningful though this type of musical ��meaning�� strongly differs from linguistic meaning. This is exactly what makes it impossible for phonological syntax to capture some structural features in music.10 In sum, narrow-sense syntax includes many aspects which do not fit to musical syntax, and phonological syntax is not enough for capturing all relevant structural features of music. One question arises: Does the distinction between narrow-sense syntax and phonological syntax make any sense for investigating musical syntax? Sometimes this issue is discussed in relation to the notion of ��duality of patterning.�� For language, duality of patterning is considered to be a central design feature (Hockett, 1960; Fitch, 2006, 2010; Arbib, 2008): language includes combinatorics of (1) meaningless www.selleckchem.com/products/ly2157299.html elements (e.g., phonemes and syllables) into meaningful elements (e.g., morphemes and words) as well as (2) these meaningful elements into larger meaningful units (e.g., phrases and sentences). Because musical structures consist of meaningless elements combined in a meaningful way, the former aspect exists also in music. However, the relation between meaningless elements and ��meaning�� is less conventionally or arbitrarily determined in music than in language (Bierwisch, 1979). In spite of this difference, it is important to note that both musical and linguistic combinatorics on this level is meaningful. The difference in the combinatorics on the first level might be no categorical difference between music and language rather a difference of degree, but has an important consequence to the latter aspect of the duality of patterning, namely compositionality. For a structure to be compositional, meaningful units should be primitives of combinatorics. As already discussed above, contrarily to language possessing a rich, stable lexicon in which largely conventionally determined units of ��freestanding�� meaning, i.e., lexical elements (e.g., words), are stored, it is difficult to find such a unit in music. Moreover, although a stock of musical formulas stored in long-term memory may be thought of as similar to the lexicon in language, they are not the primary primitives of syntactic manipulation (Jackendoff and Lerdahl, 2006). Musical formulas stored in lexicon can be abstract frameworks, patterns, or rules which are modified by composers (and musicians).11 For example, an abstract framework such as 12-bar blues can be realized in infinitely variable ways. Therefore, music is claimed not being compositional (Dempster, 1998; Patel, 2013). Concerning the small-scale level processing, this might be true. However, in a large-scale structure of music, combinatorial primitives are groups (Lerdahl, 2013) and the way in which several groups are relating to each other construct another level of ��meaning.