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All (100%) of INV-1, INV-2, and INV-3 patients had an abnormally low (falling below the 75th percentile of normal, Q1) percentage of ciliated epithelial cells compared to basal cells (Figure?1C, bottom and Additional file 1: Table S1B). The median percentage of ciliated cells in INV-3 (median=0.2%; P decreased compared to normal luminal epithelial cells (Figure?1D, top and Additional file 1: Table S1A). Reelin While INV-1, INV-2 (median=0.2%) did not have a significant decrease in the percent ciliated cells compared to normal luminal epithelial cells (Figure?1D, top), we observed an increased number of INV-1, INV-2 (low grade), and INV-3 (high grade) patients (43% and 48%, respectively) with an abnormally low (below Q1) percentage of ciliated epithelial cells compared to luminal cells (Figure?1D, bottom and Additional file 1: Table S1C). To determine if loss of cilia occurs early in breast cancer development we quantified cilia in carcinoma in situ (CIS) lesions, which represent a malignant, non-invasive lesion that is thought to be a precursor to invasive cancer. CIS is also classified into three grades (CIS: Entinostat I, 2, and 3) of increasing cellular atypia and decreased disease-free survival. CIS-1 and CIS-2 are grouped together as low-grade and CIS-3 is considered high-grade. CIS cancer cells show no evidence of invasion and are therefore contained within a basement membrane border. We quantified cilia frequency on all CIS cells within selleck products this basement membrane and compared them to both normal basal and luminal epithelial cells. Loss of primary cilia was observed in CIS-1, CIS-2, and CIS-3. The median percentage of ciliated cells in CIS-1 and CIS-2 when combined (median=0.8%; P