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We show that where Alliaria is present, Maianthemum have suppressed growth and vital rates relative to adjacent plot where Alliaria is removed. Methods Greenhouse study: assessing potential for carbon stress The greenhouse study was conducted during the summer of 2010 in the greenhouse facilities at the University of Pittsburgh. In May, we obtained bare-root adult Maianthemum plants (N = 42) from a native plant nursery (Prairie Moon Nursery, Winona, MN, USA). Rhizomes ranged in size from 6.7 to 39.7 g fresh weight. We potted each rhizome in a 3 : 1 mixture of autoclaved Fafard potting soil UNC2881 and Turface. We inoculated plants with RFS by adding 150 g of field soil collected from areas adjacent to Maianthemum plants at our experimental field site (see details below). Pots were then placed in the greenhouse and watered every 2�C3 days for 1 month, allowing the plants to complete stem elongation and establish the RFS mutualism. In June, we assigned each plant to either an Alliaria treatment or a control treatment. To control for potential differences in initial carbohydrate status due to differences in plant age and/or size (e.g. Olano et al. 2006), we stratified the randomized assignment of rhizomes into the treatments to ensure that mean rhizome mass was the same in the Alliaria and control treatments. Plants in the Alliaria treatment SRT1720 were then exposed to Alliaria allelochemicals by placing 25 g of fresh Alliaria leaf tissue collected from a population with a recent history of invasion (Fluorouracil nmr experiments (Hale et al. 2011), plants in the control treatment received 25 g of fresh Hesperis matronalis (dame's rocket; Brassicaceae) leaf tissue. Like Alliaria, Hesperis is an invasive mustard in eastern North America (Leicht-Young et al. 2012). While Hesperis produces some glucosinolates (Larsen et al. 1992), RFS hyphae and vesicles have been observed within its root system (DeMars and Boerner 1995), indicating that Hesperis chemicals are less toxic to RFS than Alliaria. In the field, the high mortality rates of Alliaria seedlings and rosettes throughout the year (Davis et al. 2006) and the mortality of adults in the summer (Anderson et al. 1996) likely result in a sustained supply of allelochemicals into the soil. Thus, we re-applied fresh leaf tissue in both treatments every 2 weeks until the end of August to simulate a season-long supply of Alliaria allelochemicals. We destructively harvested plants three times during the growing season (9 July, 6 August and at senescence) to assess the effect of the treatments on the carbohydrate status. For the last time point, we classified plants as being senesced when 40 % of the leaf tissue had yellowed and photosynthetic rates were