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Discussion In the current #Ramoplanin randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# study, we aimed to investigate the effect of sub-optimally presented pictures of painful, happy and neutral facial expressions on action readiness and ratings of painfulness, intensity, and unpleasantness of the electrocutaneous stimulation. The results can be readily summarized. First, responses to non-pain-related targets were faster following electrocutaneous stimulation than when no stimulation was delivered, indicating enhanced readiness for action. Second, this response facilitation was greater when the electrocutaneous stimulus was preceded by a sub-optimally presented painful expression compared to happy or neutral expressions. Third, painfulness ratings were higher following painful expressions than following happy expressions. Faster responses to targets preceded by aversive electrocutaneous stimulation than to targets not preceded by stimulation were taken to reflect improved action readiness following aversive tactile stimulation (cf. van Loon et al., 2010). This is in line with findings of a previous study which provided evidence in support of a hypothesis on a higher cortico-spinal excitability when observing unpleasant compared to pleasant or neutral stimuli, and no difference in the excitability when observing neutral compared to pleasant stimuli (van Loon et al., 2010). To our knowledge, our study is the first study investigating the effect of aversive electrocutaneous stimulation in combination with sub-optimal processing of painful and non-painful facial expressions on the observer��s readiness for taking an action in an unrelated behavioral task. The observation of enhanced action readiness following aversive tactile stimulation is in line with the cognitive motivational priming hypothesis which predicts that when we encounter threat, a defensive system automatically increases our readiness to reduce the consequences of such an encounter (Lang, 1995). In a similar vein, it has been suggested that activation of low-level self-defensive mechanisms by perceived threat from electrocutaneous stimulation can activate brain areas responsible for preparation of an action (e.g., premotor cortex) through a projection from the brain areas involved in the affective evaluation of perceived stimuli (Buchel et al., 1998) which might lead to faster responses. The present data revealed enhanced action readiness following the sub-optimal presentation of painful expressions. This finding might have implications for research on human empathy, suggesting that observation of pain in the facial expression of another person results in increased readiness in the observer for taking action. The facilitation in the responses is corroborated by the finding that empathic responses to painful facial expressions are primarily influenced by the threat value of pain, and that perceived threat encourages faster reactions (Yamada and Decety, 2009).