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However, the personal need for being able to control one��s environments is regarded as a fundamental motive (Heckhausen and Schulz, 1995; Skinner, 1996). Correspondingly, the consequences of experiencing gains in, Erlotinib supplier maintenance of, or loss of control over personally relevant situations or outcomes is considered universal and generalizable across cultures. Similarly, various facets of emotions have been shown to be culturally influenced, for example, emotional expressivity, norms for feeling and displaying emotions, and interpretations and interpersonal consequences of emotions (e.g., Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Eid and Diener, 2001; Mesquita and Walker, 2003; Van Hemert et al., 2007; Matsumoto et al., 2008). These facets are �C at least partly �C able to explain cultural differences in the frequency and intensity of emotions. However, without questioning potential mean level differences between cultures in various variables, basic relations between constructs are typically considered to be cross-culturally valid (also see Frenzel et al., 2007a,b for universality of constructional associations despite mean level differences). For example, ��cognitive-affective linkages�� between attributions and resulting emotions are not found to differ cross-culturally (Brown and Cai, 2010, p. 111). Pekrun (2006, p. 329) also lends support for relative cross-cultural universality stating ��general functional mechanisms of human emotions are bound to universal, species-specific characteristics of our mind.�� Further, previously mainly collective cultures are becoming more and more individualistic, especially in those parts of the world where the economy is growing (e.g., China), which continually reduces differences between collectivistic and individualistic countries (Hamamura, 2012; Steele and Lynch, 2013). Instead of focusing on absolute levels or the intensity of control and emotional experiences, in this study the effects of loss of control experiences on risk-taking behavior and the role of anger in this relationship are at issue. More precisely, we will explore whether these relational and functional associations are cross-culturally generalizable. For this purpose, the effects of subjective loss of control experiences on anger and risk-taking behavior will be investigated using samples from two countries, namely Germany and China, which represent differing cultural backgrounds and which are characterized by numerous culturally determined differences, also with respect to mean levels in the variables of interest. Research Aims and Hypotheses In summary, the objectives of this set of studies are as follows: first, the impact of subjective experiences of loss of control due to external changes in control conditions on subsequent risk-taking behavior will be examined. Second, the role of anger in this relationship will be investigated.