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More importantly, the two approaches are not necessarily in conflict with each other as recent affective neuroscience studies (e.g., Panksepp and Watt, 2011) have suggested that the differences between the two may well be insignificant given the fact that both approaches share many common grounds in explaining cognitive functions of emotion. Since it is not the purpose of this study to test which model is better, a discrete model of affect is adopted. Among the ��big six�� emotions (Ekman, 1992), vocal disgust usually cannot be elicited satisfactorily under laboratory conditions (cf. Scherer, 2003); musical surprises can be very complicated often requiring sharp contrast in compositional structure (Huron, 2006) which is out of the scope of this study. Hence, only the remaining four of the ��big six�� emotions are chosen. The research questions to be addressed are. Are dynamics of piano performance (i.e., finger force) similar to or different from dynamics of speech production (i.e., articulatory effort) under the condition of the four emotions? Do fingerings and articulatory constraints interact with emotion in their influence on the dynamics of piano performance and speech production respectively? Experiments Experiment 1: The piano experiment Stimuli Two excerpts of music were composed for this study. According to the above reviews on fingerings, hand span and weak fingers should be the primary focus. Therefore, the two excerpts were composed corresponding to small and large hand span, respectively. Small hand span is where fingers are at their natural resting positions on the keyboard, i.e., without needing to extend far beyond the resting positions to reach the notes (Sandor, 1981). Large hand span is where fingers need to extend far beyond their resting positions, which usually involves stretching at least an octave (Parncutt et al., 1997). Meanwhile, each excerpt was to be played with strong finger combinations (the thumb, index, and middle fingers) and weak finger combinations (the ring and little fingers). In addition, given the fact that right and left hands tend to have different patterns in piano performance (Minetti et al., 2007), only the right hand is involved in this experiment to avoid theoretical and practical complexities. Hence altogether there are four levels of fingerings for this study: small-weak (SW), small-strong (SS), large-weak (LW), large-strong (LS). To avoid confounding effects, all excerpts have musically neutral structure, i.e., without having overtly emotional implications. Figures ?Figures11�C4 demonstrate the fingering design. Selleckchem C59 wnt Figure 1 The small-weak condition (SW): small hand span (i.e., fingers are at their natural resting positions) with only weak fingers, i.e., the ring (4) and little (5) fingers involved. Figure 4 The large-strong condition (LS): large hand span (i.e.