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Subjects were then dressed in a long-sleeved and long-legged, two-pieced, tube-lined perfusion suit (Med-Eng, Ottawa, Canada) enabling the control of skin temperature and Tc via the water temperature perfusing the suit. Core body MCF2L temperature was measured using a telemetry temperature pill swallowed ?1 h before the onset of data collection (HQ Inc., Palmetto, FL, USA). Whole-body mean skin temperature was measured from the electrical average of six thermocouples (Taylor et al. 1989) fixed to the skin with porous adhesive tape. Beat-to-beat arterial blood pressure was measured and reconstructed to give brachial artery pressure using finger-cuff photoplethysmography (Finometer Pro, FMS, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; or NexFin HD, BMEYE BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands). Arterial pressure was also measured by auscultation of the brachial artery (Tango, Suntech Medical Instruments, Raleigh, NC, USA). Finger arterial pressure was used for data analysis, while measures from the brachial artery and Finometer were used to aid in the detection of presyncope during LBNP. Mean blood velocity in the right middle cerebral artery (MCAVmean) was measured using a 2 MHz pulsed Doppler ultrasound learn more system (Multiflow, DWL Elektronische Systeme, Singen, Germany). The Doppler probe was maintained at a fixed position using a commercial headpiece. Cerebrovascular conductance (CVCi) was calculated as MCAVmean/mean arterial pressure (MAP). The partial pressure of end-tidal carbon dioxide () was sampled from a nasal cannula and measured using a capnograph (9004 Capnocheck? Plus, Smiths Medical International Ltd, Watford, UK). Heart rate was obtained from an electrocardiogram signal (Agilent, Munich, Germany) interfaced with a cardiotachometer (1000 Hz sampling rate; CWE, Ardmore, PA, USA). Thermal and haemodynamic data were acquired continuously at 50 Hz throughout the experiment (Biopac, Santa Barbara, CA, USA). Cardiac output and stroke volume were measured non-invasively click here using an inert gas rebreathing device (InnoCore, Innovision A/S, Odense, Denmark). Cardiac output was not measured during LBNP because the employed rebreathing technique may affect LBNP tolerance, which was the primary variable of interest. Total peripheral resistance was calculated as MAP/cardiac output. On the experimental days that involved heat stress, a catheter was inserted into the antecubital vein. Blood samples were obtained and analysed immediately (