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, 2015). In particular, these aspects can be investigated in relation to the phenomenon of entrainment. In general, ��entrainment�� refers to ��the process by which independent rhythmical systems interact with each other�� (Clayton, 2012, p. 49) and can be observed not only in musical context, but also in several biological, physical, and social contexts. In a musical context, the best example is moving to music such as foot-tapping, head nodding, and dancing. In more complex cases, two or more people interact during musical activity such as an ensemble playing and dancing together (Phillips-Silver and Keller, 2012). In such social contexts, actions of individuals (joint actions) are taking place simultaneously. ��The experience of music thus involves the perception of purposeful, intentional and organized sequences of motor acts as the cause of temporally synchronous auditory information�� (Molnar-Szakacs and Overy, 2006). This is an important difference to linguistic communication in with turn-taking plays an essential role. Musical entrainment requiring auditory-motor integration might reflect musical affective-gestural and socio-intentional goals relating tightly to social aspects to get and belong together and thus partly different than auditory-motor integration in Arginase speech (for discussion, see Patel, 2006; Fitch, 2012). Implications for Language and Speech Research In language and speech research, our framework can be applied in a bottom-up fashion, namely in terms of sensory-motor integration and motor control. Phonological rules determine how online movements are produced and controlled. As we saw, musical and phonological rule systems are similar in making use of not only sensory information, but also motor information. The questions how plans relate to motor programs and how planning perspective can be aligned with sensory-motor integration and motor control remain open. One suggestion to relate sensory-motor integration, motor control, and linguistic units was made by Hickok (2012). He introduced a hierarchically organized motor control model (hierarchical state feedback model; HSFC) in which psycholinguistics investigating higher linguistic aspects (speech planning) and motor control approach are integrated. Such an integrative model is promising for the future comparative research on music, language, and action, because differences in music and phonology could also lie in different goals and plans. Conclusion In this paper, we have attempted to find an adequate level of comparison between music and language, to capture the intuition that they share a ��syntax.�� We saw that many theoretical and experimental investigations tend to focus mainly on hierarchical aspects of musical and linguistic syntax and face the conundrum that similarities and differences exist simultaneously.